"There's wrong, there's very wrong and then there's Larry Peery." --- Charles Talleyrand-Peerigord OVERALL PEERISPECTIVE This is a story about a time, from 1 November 1814 to 8 June 1815, although delegates began gathering as early as September to take advantage of Emperor Francis?s generous hospitality. Even though the main action took place in and around the Hofberg Palace in Vienna, the long-term effects of the Congress were felt world-wide. Some four hundred official delegates took part in the Congress?s many meetings and social events of whom about forty were major figures and less than twenty were key players (including the two emperors and four kings). BACKGROUND After Napoleon's first abdication in April 1814, representatives of all the states of Europe met in Vienna in order to decide what to do now that the Napoleonic threat had disappeared. They had three priorities: To reduce the size of France to its frontiers before the Revolutionary War of 1792; To ensure that France could never again pose a threat to the rest of Europe, especially to the east, and To reward those countries that had been "anti-Napoleon" and punish those that had been "pro-Napoleon". All of the European countries and States were represented at the Congress, with the sole exception of Turkey. THE KEY PLAYERS To refresh your memory here?s a list of the monarchs and foreign ministers of the key participants (Well, except in the one case just mentioned.) at the First Congress of Vienna. I?ve included some descriptive words that describe each individual. Can you think of any modern Dippers who have the same descriptions? I?ve also included some of the highlights of the results of the Congress. Austria: Holy Roman Emperor Francis II a/k/a Emperor Francis I of Austria and Klemens von Metternich Francis I was known for: an unhappy childhood, being a defeatist in early wars, later successes in war and diplomacy, personally triumphant in hosting Congress of Vienna, undermining his allies , Russia and Prussia, distrusted radicalism (e.g. the French Revolution), suspicious, fearful of enemies domestic and foreign, distrustful, parsimonious in military spending, open and approachable, but still possessor of a sovereign?s will, strong patriarch of a loving family. Prince Klemens von Metternich: The architect of the Congress of Vienna, Metternich was the Austrian foreign minister for decades. His main goal was to support conservative governments in Europe and to establish a Balance of Power. This was to prevent another power dominating Europe as had France. He prevented Prussia from gaining more power in Germany and pushed for an Austrian-dominated German-Confederation. The Austrian delegation was led by Prince Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von Metternich, a statesman and a diplomat. Metternich was also the President of the Congress. Metternich was known for: statesman, foreign minister, champion of conservatism, mediator, insightful, crafty, manipulator, master of controlling people, strong-willed, determined, cynical, arbitrator, and ?an evil genius.? Extremely intelligent, confident leader, a ?loyal servant to the Emperor? but also the ?true head? of the government, complex, inventor of the ?Metternich System? , anti-revolutionary and liberalism, believer in the practical ?balance of power,? amazing negotiator, knew his own worth and personal sense of history, able to put personal differences aside for the common good, leadership skills surpassed his contemporaries and those who came after him, not at all vindictive, favored appeasement over harsh reparations, self-confident, egotistical, more of a prime minister than a foreign minister. Austria In Italy, Austria received Venetia, Lombardy and Milan, the Illyrian provinces (Carinthia, Carniola and Trieste), Dalmatia, and the seaport of Cattaro (now the kingdoms lllyria and Dalmatia) In Poland, Austria kept eastern Galicia, with Krakow made a free city. In Germany, Austria received the Tyrol and Salzburg. The following web site (https://www.bka.gv.at/site/3876/default.aspx) shows some of the history of the building in Vienna that housed many of the Congress of Vienna?s activities; and what became of it. (Federal Chancellery website) with map. England: King George III, Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool; Wellington, Castlereagh and Clancarty as delegates. George III was known for: born in Britain, spoke English as his native tongue, never visited Hanover; a fighter that gained some but lost much; suffered from a recurrent and then perpetual mental illness seen as a tyrant in the USA, and a ?scapegoat for the failure of imperialism? at home. Reserved and shy as a child, of a scientific bent, he lost the power struggle between the monarchy and Parliament, obstinate but not ruthless, Lord Liverpool. Liverpool oversaw British victory in the Napoleonic Wars. The subsequent Congress of Vienna led to significant territorial gains for Hanover, which was upgraded from an electorate to a kingdom. He was demonized, yet praised at the same time. The chief English delegates to the Congress were: Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, foreign minister; Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, general and statesman; and Lord Clancarty. Viscount Robert Castlereagh: Represented Britain at the Congress. Proponent of a Concert of Europe. Prevented Russia from gaining too much from the victory over Napoleon. Wanted a stronger Germany and Italy. Later committed suicide after appearing to go insane. : cynic, a major player, a major influence, strong supporter of the ?conference system,? a leader, thoughtful, introspective, brilliant diplomatic, persuasive tactician, suspicious, paranoid, and finally suicidal. Great Britain retained: Malta; Heligoland; The protectorate of the Ionian Isles (the latter by a treaty signed 5 November 1815); Mauritius, Tobago and Santa Lucia from France; Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope from Holland; and Trinidad from Spain. France: King Louis XVIII, Emperor Napoleon, and again King Louis XVIII; and Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord. Louis XVIII was known for: Historians still disagree about the true character and principles of Louis XVIII. Some regard him as the epitome of moderation and statesmanship, a wise king who ? like his ancestor Henry IV?wished to conciliate all factions. But for others, he was a cynical and narrow-minded old monarch who resorted to compromise only when circumstances forced his hand. He probably had no admiration for Britain's parliamentary system, but he had astuteness enough to realize that he could not restore the Old Regime. Regarding the throne as a "comfortable armchair," he was determined to do whatever was necessary to remain seated. There is no complete edition of Louis's letters, but some were published in the correspondence and memoirs of Lord Castlereagh, the Vicomte de Chateaubriand, Prince Metternich, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, the Comte de Vill?le, the Duke of Wellington, and other contemporary statesmen. Napoleon I was known for: a complex personality that made it difficult to separate the private personality from the public persona. A contradictory personality made him even more powerful because no one, friend or foe, could really understand him. Diligent, predictability, superlative intelligence, ambition and sense of superiority, great pride and belief in the infallibility. He was an extremely hard-working and confident man who constantly pushed himself. He also had a brilliant mind with a near photographic memory and a voracious appetite for knowledge. Also keep in mind that even though he was the most important person at the Congress of Vienna - Napoleon - wasn?t even physically there! The website (http://www.historytoday.com/gemma-betros/napoleon-man) offers a good look at Napoleon?s personality. Prince Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand: The French representative at the Congress, Talleyrand quickly moved from defending France from any serious damage to becoming the deciding factor is solving many disputes at the Congress. Though the Congress was designed at least partly to punish France, the fact that four powers were involved meant that deadlocks could result. Cleverly throwing what little influence France had at the meeting, Talleyrand took the side of Austria and Britain to thwart Russia and Prussia while gaining for France better conditions than had been expected. Talleyrand was known for: cynicism, statesmanship, ?divide and conquer?, cunning, skill, and the best diplomat France ever produced. One of the most influential diplomats of the era, Talleyrand was described by Napoleon Bonaparte as "a piece of dung in a silk stocking". He was a friend of all and a friend of none and was in constant contact with all sides and factions during one of Europe's most tumultuous periods. Politically savvy, Talleyrand was not well liked. He made a huge personal fortune out of his high positions and was always regarded with suspicion. Nevertheless, he prospered in a time when just surviving in French politics was a major achievement. Emmerich Dalhberg was known for being a German diplomat who held high positions in France during the Bourbon Restoration. A prot?g? of Talleyrand he fell from grace with him. France Apart from the provisions of the second Treaty of Paris, France received French Guiana from Portugal, Guadeloupe from Sweden, and Martinique and the Isle of Bourbon from Great Britain. Prussia: King Frederick William III and Prince von Hardenberg. William III was known for being irresolute. Prince Karl August von Hardenberg: Represented Prussia at the Congress. Brokered the deal between Russia and Britain over Poland. Gained the Rhineland by giving up Prussian claims to Saxony. Part of the Holy Alliance. Hardenberg the foreign minister who became prime minister was known for: a liberal who became conservative, statesman, compromiser, resourceful, adaptable, a nationalist in foreign policy and a liberal in domestic policy. He was no match for Metternich although he had Tsar Alexander I?s support. Hardenberg was past his zenith by time of the Congress. He was a wise, but not of trustworthy character. He took fifty years to get his Memoirs published. Von Humbolt was a linguist and educator, became a successful diplomat and then retired when Prussia became too reactionary. Prussia In Germany, Prussia received half of Saxony, the Grand Duchy of Berg, part of the Duchy of Westphalia, and territory on the left bank of the Rhine between Elken and Coblenz, including Cologne, Tr?ves, and Aix-la-Chapelle. Prussia also received Swedish Pomerania and the King of Prussia was recognized as Prince of Neuchatel. In Poland, Prussia retained the territory gained in the previous partitions, the province of Posen, and the cities of Danzig and Thorn. Russia: Emperor Alexander I and Count Karl Robert von Nesselrode. Tsar Alexander I: Represented Russia at the Congress. One of the Big Four. Main goal was to get Poland, only got part due to opposition from the rest of the Four. Formed the idealistic Holy Alliance in 1815 to keep order in Europe. Alexander I was known for: fickleness, befriending and then opposing other rulers and delegates, supported balance of power and ?getting along,? determined to get what he wanted, disgusted, disillusioned, just, charitable, radical, liberal, foolish, childish, idealist, mystic, spiritualist, very religious, whimsical, unpredictable. Delegation led by the Russian Emperor Tsar Alexander I. Other attendees included Count Nesselrode, Count Capo d'Istria, Carlo Andreo Pozzo di Borgo. Nesselrode was known for: of German descent, born in Portugal, served as Russian foreign minister for 40 years, and arch-conservative, Alexander I was his own foreign minister until 1816, when Nesselrode assumed a more powerful role, expansionist in the Balkans and Mediterranean, attempted to penetrate Japan?s self-isolationism. Wrote an auto-biography. Rassoumoffski was: Tsar?s representative to the Vienna Hapsburgs, negotiator at Congress of Vienna, pushed Russia?s interests in Poland, amateur musician and patron of the arts, builder of a famous palace in Vienna (at his own expense), later destroyed by fire. Russia In Poland, Russia received the greater part of the grand duchy of Warsaw which was to be made into a separate kingdom of Poland. Krakow became a free city state under the protection of Russia, Austria and Prussia. Russia retained Finland, conquered from Sweden in 1808. Russia retained Bessarabia, taken from Turkey in 1812. Turkey (Ottoman Empire): Mahmud II; and Hursid Ahmed Pasha (1812-1815) and Mehmed Emin Rauf Pasha (1815-1815). Turkey sent no delegate to the Congress because it claimed it had no one with the proper diplomatic training to send. Mahmud II was known for: ?the Peter the Great of Turkey,? a reformer who abolished the Janissaries, fought with the Saudis over control of the holy cities of Arabia. A champion archer, he died of TB. Hursid Ahmed Pasha & ? were known for: Ottoman general, Grand Vizier, rose through the Janissaries, fought against rebels in Greece, often plotted against, he committed sucicide. Vatican /Papal States: Pope Pius VII and Cardinal Consalvi. Pius VII was known for: early supporter of Napoleon, patron of Consalvi, later opposed Napoleon and fought with him over Papal States, appointment of cardinals, marriage rites, restored Jesuits, opposed slavery and Freemasonry, his tomb in St. Peters was designed by the Dane Thorvaldsen, a Protestant. Consalvi was known for: served twice as Cardinal Secretary of State and ?defacto mayor of The Vatican? while Pius VII was in exile, a legitimist and firm supporter of ?the divine right of kings.? Strong opponent of Napoleon. He persuaded Congress of Vienna to restore Papal States, less Avignon. The Slave Trade In February 1815, the Congress condemned the slave trade as inconsistent with civilization and human rights. The Pope received the Legation of Bologna and most of Ferrara, but was refused the restoration of Avignon, France. The German States By the act of Confederation, signed 8 June 1815, and supplemented by the final act of Vienna, 15 May 1820, a German Confederacy was set up to replace the old Holy Roman Empire. The number of German states was reduced from over 300 to 39. A Diet was established under the Presidency of Austria, to which states were to send delegates. The Diet consisted of the Ordinary Assembly sitting permanently at Frankfurt and a General Assembly. Each state was to be independent in internal affairs, but war between the individual states was forbidden and the consent of the Confederacy was necessary for foreign war. Bavaria received Rhenish Bavaria, extending from the Prussian territory on the Rhine to Alsace, including the city of Mainz. Hanover became a kingdom and received East Frisia and Hildesheim. Italy Ferdinand IV was recognised as King of the Two Sicilies. The Pope received the Legation of Bologna and most of Ferrara, but was refused the restoration of Avignon. Tuscany was assigned to the Grand Duke Ferdinand, uncle of the Emperor Francis; Modena to the Archduke Francois d?Este, another Habsburg prince Parma, Piacenza and Guastella were granted to the Empress Marie Louise (Napoleon's second wife, and mother of his only son) for life. Genoa was given to the Kingdom of Sardinia. Low Countries The formation of the kingdom of the Netherlands was ratified, comprising the former republic of Holland and Austrian Belgium, under the former hereditary Stadtholder as King William I. The sovereignty of the Netherlands was given to the House of Orange, and the King of the Netherlands was made Grand Duke of Luxembourg, making him a member of the German Confederation Switzerland. The 19 existing cantons were increased to 22 by the addition of Geneva, Wallis, and Neuchatel. Switzerland became a confederation of independent cantons with its neutrality guaranteed by the Great Powers. Sweden, Denmark and Norway Sweden retained Norway which had been ceded to her by Denmark at the Peace of Kiel (14 January 1814). The Norwegians were guaranteed the possession of their liberties and rights. Denmark was indemnified with Lauenburg. Spain and Portugal Spain lost Trinidad. Portugal lost Guiana to France. Comments The confederation of German states and the redivision of Italy led to Nineteenth Century unification activity ? Italy under Garibaldi and Cavour, Prussia under Bismarck. the buffer state of the Netherlands did not last long. The Belgians removed Dutch control over their country in 1830. Britain appeared to acquire minimal advantages in the settlement, given that she had spent ?600 million on the wars. She got no land in Europe, but Britain did gain colonial strength which helped her trade and commerce. Britain became THE European colonial power. Liberalism and nationalism in Europe was halted, temporarily. It was not crushed. Russia entered Western Europe as a major power and from 1815 onwards played a regular and important part in European diplomacy. Russia had gained the Duchy of Warsaw and Finland at Vienna - hence the unification of Norway and Sweden under Bernadotte, as Charles XIV. This union was terminated only in 1905. The Congress of Vienna was seen as the first of a series of Congresses which have been labelled as the "Congress System" although it was never a system. Diplomats felt that they should 'stick together' in peacetime to preserve the peace. It was a "gentlemen's agreement" - verbal, and there was no constitution; it was decided that when and where conflict could lead to international war, a congress would meet to talk it out first. 1815 Congress of Vienna; 1818 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle; 1820 Congress of Troppau; 1821 Congress of Laibach; and 1822 Congress of Verona. These were the early origins of international co-operation that shape Europe today. The Game Board Changes Congress of Vienna, 1815: A Division of Territories The Congress of Vienna was responsible for the following territories: The Rhine; Lower Part of Current day Germany that circles around Munich; The Duchy of Warsaw; Part of Eastern Europe from Warsaw to Minsk; The Kingdom of Italy; Central and Northern Italy from Rome to Florence and Venice; The Kingdom of Naples; Southern Italy; Fermoselle, a major border city and fortification between Portugal and Spain; Lithuania; North Eastern Europe stretching from Vilnius to Riga; Luxembourg, a 999 square mile strip of land that separates and acts as a buffer zone for the rest of Central Europe from France; Montenegro, a small state that declared independence while Austria was distracted with the Napoleonic Wars; and Ukraine, a vast territory that Germany, Russia and Austria wished to claim as their own. Decisions The main provisions of the final Treaty of Vienna were: Austria would surrender Belgium to the Netherlands, receiving in compensation the Italianprovinces of Lombardy and Venetia, and the Illyrian provinces along the Adriatic Sea. Austria also regained the Tirol, but lost its Polish provinces. Hapsburg royals were given the thrones of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany in northern Italy. Prussia gained Swedish Pomerania, two fifths of Saxony, and additional territory along the Rhine River, in addition to recovering Posen (part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw) and some other territories which Napoleon had taken. Russia took the greater part of Poland, later known as "Congress Poland," and obtained Finland from Sweden and Bessarabia from the Ottoman Empire. Sweden was compensated with Norway, which was taken from Denmark to punish the latter for persistent loyalty to Napoleon. Britain kept nearly all its colonial conquests, securing permanent control from the Netherlands of Cape Colony in southern Africa, Ceylon, and part of Guiana; it also obtained Helgoland, part of Honduras, the Ionian Islands, and the islands of Malta, Mauritius, St. Lucia, Tobago, and Trinidad.[2] France, now under Bourbon King Louis XVIII, was dealt with in the second Treaty of Paris, in November 1815. All the Napoleonic imperial conquests were removed, and France returned to its 1790 frontiers. France was required to pay an indemnity of 700,000,000 francs and to support an occupation army for five years. The Bourbon kings were restored in Spain and in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, while the Kingdom of Sardinia was permitted to incorporate the former Republic of Genoa. The pope regained his temporal possessions. The neutrality of Switzerland, an independent confederation of 22 cantons, was guaranteed. The Holy Roman Empire, which Napoleon ended in 1806, was not restored. A Germanic Confederation was created, consisting of 38 states. It was to have a Diet of representatives chosen by the ruling princes and presided over by Austria, which largely dictated the policies of the Confederation. The Congress expressed a desire for reforms relating to the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade, the opening of international rivers such as the Danube and the Rhine to free commerce and navigation, and the regulation of the rights of precedence among diplomatic representatives. A New Order in Germany With the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire a new German Confederation was established, although still under the nominal leadership of the emperor of Austria. The over 300 mostly religious territories that made up the Holy Roman Empire were grouped into less than 40 new political nation-states. Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 States of the German Confederation in 1815 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: "The German Confederation, 1815?1866" (in German): "The States of the German Confederation were those member states that from 20 June 1815 were part of the German Confederation, which lasted, with some changes in the member states, until 24 August 1866, under the presidency of the Austrian imperial House of Habsburg, which was represented by an Austrian presidential envoy to the Federal diet in Frankfurt." Explanation On the whole, its territory nearly coincided with that remaining in the Holy Roman Empire at the outbreak of the French Revolution, with the notable exception of Belgium. Except for the two rival major powers, Habsburg and Prussia, and the western left bank of the Rhine (which France had annexed, with tiny Katzenelnbogen and its 3.5 square miles and 2,000 population), the other member states or their precursors, making up most of present Germany, had been within Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine: The Austrian Empire, excluding the Kingdom of Hungary, the Principality of Transylvania, and Croatia (all of which became parts of the apostolic kingdom of Hungary within the Danubian Dual Monarchy), the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia (constituting parts lost to Italy in 1859- viz. 1866) Bukovina, the kingdoms of Dalmatia and Galicia; Kingdom of Bohemia; Archduchy of Austria (split into Upper Austria and Lower Austria in 1849); Margraviate of Moravia; Grand Duchy of Salzburg; Duchy of Carinthia; Duchy of Carniola; Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia; Duchy of Styria; Littoral (consisting of Gorizia and Gradisca, Istria and Trieste); County of Tyrol; and Vorarlberg. The Kingdom of Prussia (without Posen, East Prussia and West Prussia) Brandenburg; Pomerania; Rhine Province (until 1822, Lower Rhine and J?lich-Cleves-Berg); Saxony; Silesia; Westphalia; The Kingdom of Bavaria (the third largest member); The Kingdom of Saxony; The Kingdom of Hanover; The Kingdom of W?rttemberg; The Electorate of Hesse; The Grand Duchy of Baden; The Grand Duchy of Hesse; The Duchy of Holstein (in personal union with the Kingdom of Denmark, was not a former member of the Confederation of the Rhine); The Duchy of Schleswig (a fief of Denmark and together with the Duchy of Holstein in personal union with the Kingdom of Denmark, was not a former member of either the Holy Roman Empire or the Confederation of the Rhine. The secessionist (pro-German) government of Schleswig-Holstein (1848?51) joined Schleswig to the Confederation. This was not recognized by the Danish government, and the peace settlement in 1851 specified that Schleswig was not a member. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (lost over half of its territory in the west to Belgium in the breakup of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1839, and thereby causing Duchy of Limburg to become a member). The Duchy of Limburg (became a member in 1839 as a compensation for territorial losses in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg that were caused by the breakup of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands). The Duchy of Brunswick (prior Brunswick-Lunenburgian Principality of Wolfenb?ttel); The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; The Duchy of Nassau; The Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach; The Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (to 1825); The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (to 1826); The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (from 1826); The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen; The Duchy of Saxe-Hildburghausen (Saxe-Altenburg from 1826); The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; The Duchy of Oldenburg (Grand Duchy from 1829); The Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau (Duchy of Anhalt from 1863); The Duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg (to 1863); The Duchy of Anhalt-K?then (to 1847); The Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen; The Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt; The Principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (merged in Prussia in 1850); The Principality of Liechtenstein; The Principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (merged in Prussia in 1850); The Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont; The Principality of Reuss Senior Line; The Principality of Reuss Junior Line; The Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe; The Principality of Lippe; The Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg (from 1817); The Duchy of Lauenburg; The Free and Hanseatic City of L?beck; The Free City of Frankfurt upon Main; The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (still a constitutive state of federal Germany); The Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (still a constitutive state of federal Germany). The four free cities were republics by constitution, while all the others were monarchies, some constitutional, some absolutist. The Congress expressed a desire for reforms relating to the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade, the opening of international rivers such as the Danube and the Rhine to free commerce and navigation, and the regulation of the rights of precedence among diplomatic representatives. Conclusion I hope this brief look at some of the key personalities of the Congress of Vienna and at some of the territories, large and small, that shaped pre-Calhamer?s Europe will have proved as interesting to you as they did me. I know I?ll never look at Nesselrode or Katzenelnbogen the same way again. Further Reading The 1800s offer many interesting topics for further study: 1848 (Revolutionary Europe), Carl von Clausewitz, Congress of Vienna, Crimean War, Habsburgs (or Hapsburgs), Industrial Revolution, Clemens von Metternich, Napoleonic Wars and the Rothschilds among them. This site has some interesting reading lists on each of them. I found the following of special use: https://www.questia.com/library/history/european-history/europe-1789-1900 http://teacherweb.ftl.pinecrest.edu/snyderd/MWH/Projects/cov/Personalities.htm http://www.victorianweb.org/history/forpol/vienna.html (Above has list of who gained and who lost what) http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/napoleonic/section10.rhtml (A good over-view and summary) http://gwcia.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Vienna-FINAL.pdf (A sample of a ?Model United Nations? approach to the Congress of Vienna) https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/04/15/how-personality-explains-behavior-in-congress/ Although written about the US Congress much of what this article says can be applied to the Congress of Vienna as well. It covers how personality explains behavior in Congress, the importance of ideology, the decline of the political center, collegiality, and bipartisanship. It also discusses, for each member, their positions on the Big Five personality dimensions ? Openness to new experiences, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (or OCEAN, for short). https://www.questia.com/library/history/european-history/germany/germany-1806-1871/congress-of-vienna (Reading List) There are many maps available on wiki or by Google search of Europe after the Treaty of Westphalia and the Congress of Vienna. The Google Bing Map satellite option shows what these areas look like today. Larry Peery (peery@ix.netcom.com) If you wish to e-mail feedback on this article to the author, and clicking on the envelope above does not work for you, feel free to use the "Dear DP..." mail interface.